Contents:
- Chronology (to 1860)
- Description,
influences from other groups, impact on other groups, and notes on core themes.
- Synthesis
and Thematic Analysis
- Analysis
of recurring patterns such as charismatic leadership, communal living,
gender innovation, non-monogamous sexuality, esotericism, and the
construction of group identity
- Patterns
of Transmission and Adaptation
- How ideas
and practices were transmitted, adapted, and transformed across
movements.
- Glossary of Terms
Section 1: Chronological
Timeline
1. Native American Religious Traditions (Pre-Colonial–Present) — North America
Description:
Diverse spiritual systems centering on animism, ancestor veneration, shamanism, sacred landscapes, and communal ritual. Revitalization movements such as the Ghost Dance and the Shawnee Prophet Movement arose in response to colonial disruption, promising spiritual renewal and resistance.
Influences:
Ancestral oral traditions, environmental and cosmological beliefs, responses to colonialism and Christian missions.
Impact:
Shaped American spiritual diversity, influenced later syncretic and revivalist movements, and provided models of communal ritual, sacred geography, and spiritual leadership. Traditions persist and adapt despite centuries of suppression.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership was embodied by shamans, prophets, or medicine people, whose authority derived from visions, spiritual power, and ancestral lineage. Prophecy and revelation were central, especially during revitalization movements like the Ghost Dance and the Shawnee Prophet Movement. Communalism was fundamental, with rituals, ceremonies, and shared sacred spaces—often specific landscapes—reinforcing social cohesion and group identity. Gender roles varied, with many nations recognizing two-spirit individuals as spiritually significant, reflecting unique approaches to gender and sexuality; some societies practiced communal child-rearing and, among certain elites, polygamy, as documented in the ethnographic record. Esoteric knowledge and ritual responsibilities were often reserved for initiates or elders. Legalism and lifestyle regulation were maintained through taboos, dietary rules, and ceremonial obligations. Group identity and boundary-making were maintained through oral tradition, ritual observance, and adaptation in response to colonial pressures, including creative blending with Christian elements in some contexts. Transmission and lineage relied on oral storytelling, apprenticeship, and communal participation, ensuring continuity while allowing for ritual innovation. Veneration of spirits, ancestors, or culture heroes reflected deification ideology, and the deep connection to land as sacred was central to the religious worldview.
2. Puritans (c. 1620–1700s) — New England
Description:
English Protestant reformers who migrated to New England to establish a "city upon a hill" governed by strict moral and religious codes, emphasizing covenant theology and communal discipline.
Influences:
English Calvinism, Reformation-era radicalism, millenarian and biblical typology.
Impact:
Profoundly shaped New England's religious, social, and educational institutions, influencing later revivalist and reformist movements and setting precedents for communal discipline, literacy, and civic governance.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership was exercised by ministers and magistrates, whose authority was rooted in scriptural interpretation and the concept of a covenant community. While direct prophecy was not central, providential readings of events and occasional dissenters claiming revelation, such as Anne Hutchinson, influenced the group's boundaries. Communalism was strong, with church membership tied to civic participation and communal discipline, and the community governed by rigorous legal and lifestyle codes. Gender roles were patriarchal, but female dissenters sometimes challenged these norms. Sacred spaces included meetinghouses and the land itself, seen as a new promised land. Group identity and boundary-making were reinforced through strict moral codes, church covenants, and public confession. Transmission and lineage relied on family, church membership, and migration, while legalism and lifestyle regulation were extensive, covering worship, dress, public behavior, and economic practices. The Puritans saw themselves as a chosen people, drawing typological parallels to the Israelites.
3. Quakers (Religious Society of Friends) (c. 1650s–Present) — Mid-Atlantic, New England
Description:
Radical Christian movement from England, emphasizing the "Inner Light," pacifism, and egalitarian worship without clergy. Rejected outward sacraments and hierarchical church structures.
Influences:
English dissenting Protestantism, mystical Christianity, radical egalitarianism.
Impact:
Pioneered religious liberty, abolitionism, and social reform, influencing American pluralism and egalitarian ideals. Their testimonies of simplicity, peace, and equality shaped later reform movements.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership and prophecy were foundational, as early Friends believed in direct revelation through the Inner Light, allowing both men and women to speak and lead during meetings. This openness led to significant gender innovation, with women preaching and holding leadership roles, and Quakers became early advocates for women's rights and abolitionism. Communal discipline and mutual aid were hallmarks, with meetings enforcing plain dress, speech, and pacifist testimony. Esoteric elements appeared in the mystical doctrine of the Inner Light. Sacred spaces were de-emphasized, as Friends believed all places could be holy, but the meetinghouse became a focal point for communal worship. Group identity and boundary-making were maintained through lifestyle regulation, plainness, and refusal to participate in war or oath-taking. Transmission and lineage occurred through family, proselytizing, and networks of meetings. Legalism and lifestyle regulation were enforced through meeting discipline. Ritual innovation included silent worship and the abolition of sacraments as outward forms, focusing on inward experience.
4. Labadist Colony (1683–1730) — Maryland
Description:
Communal, pietist Christian settlement founded by followers of Jean de Labadie, emphasizing spiritual purity, communal property, and withdrawal from the world.
Influences:
Dutch Pietism, Radical Reformation, Jean de Labadie's teachings.
Impact:
One of the earliest communal societies in America, influencing later German pietist groups and the American tradition of religious utopianism.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership was central, first under Labadie and later under his disciples. Communalism was absolute, with all property held in common and daily life strictly regulated. The colony practiced gender separation and strict legalism, with an emphasis on spiritual rebirth as a prerequisite for membership. Its distinct identity and transmission through migration from Europe marked it as a precursor to later American communal societies.
5. Society of the Woman in the Wilderness (1694–c. 1740) — Pennsylvania
Description:
Mystical, apocalyptic community of German Pietists led by Johannes Kelpius. Members, who were celibate men, lived as hermits while awaiting the imminent end of the world.
Influences:
German Pietism, Rosicrucianism, Jakob Böhme's theosophy, apocalypticism.
Impact:
Introduced a significant stream of European esotericism to America, including alchemy, astrology, and Christian theosophy. Legacy influenced later mystical and communal groups, notably Ephrata Cloister.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership, prophecy, and esotericism defined the group. Johannes Kelpius was viewed as a master and prophet. The community practiced communal living in a semi-monastic style, with individual meditation and group ritual. The celibate, all-male community represented a form of gender innovation through exclusion, creating a mystical masculine space devoted to apocalyptic preparation. Ritual innovation included complex musical compositions and astrological observations. The group maintained a strong boundary with mainstream society through its ascetic lifestyle and esoteric practices. Their lineage is a key part of the history of Western esotericism in America.
6. Louisiana Voodoo (c. 1700–Present) — Louisiana
Description:
A Creole religion that emerged in colonial Louisiana, blending West-Central African Vodun, Roman Catholicism, Native folk medicine, and French-Spanish occult lore.
Influences:
West African Vodun, Catholic liturgy and saints, French-Spanish folk magic, Native American herbalism.
Impact:
Provided an adaptive spiritual system for enslaved and free Blacks, Creoles, and poor whites; produced iconic leaders (e.g., Marie Laveau); and shaped New Orleans' cultural identity through ritual, music, and public fêtes.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership centred on priestesses such as Marie Laveau, whose reputed prophetic power and healing drew multiracial followings. Prophecy and revelation appeared in possession-trance and dream divination. Communalism was expressed in public St John's-Eve ceremonies at Bayou St John and Congo Square. Gender innovation elevated female spiritual authority. Esotericism flourished in gris-gris, conjure, and Catholic-esoteric syncretism. Sacred space revolved around urban crossroads, cemeteries, and riverbanks. Boundary-making relied on secrecy, ritual taboos, and coded Catholic imagery. Transmission passed through matrilineal lines and apprenticeship; legal repression in the 1850s spurred ritual innovation and dispersal.
7. Powwow (Braucherei) Tradition (c. 1700–Present) — Pennsylvania
Description:
A Pennsylvania-Dutch healing system combining German Lutheran prayers, European grimoires, and Native plant lore, administered by lay healers called "powwowers."
Influences:
German folk Christianity, The Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses, Kabbalistic motifs, Native herbal knowledge.
Impact:
Created a durable rural healing network, preserved German vernacular magic, and influenced later American occult revivals.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership resided in respected healers whose authority came from lineage and successful cures. Esotericism lay in secret charms, sigils, and incantations. Ritual innovation included drawing hexagrams on barns for protection and prescribing spoken Bible verses for ailments. Group identity rested on ethnic boundary-making within mixed-culture Pennsylvania; legalism governed practitioner ethics (no fee-taking, Christ-centred formulas). Transmission persisted by family apprenticeship and bilingual charm books.
8. Dunkers (German Baptist Brethren) (1719–Present) — Pennsylvania
Description:
German pietist sect that emerged from the Radical Pietist movement in Germany and migrated to Pennsylvania. Emphasized adult baptism by trine immersion, communal living, pacifism, and simplicity.
Influences:
Radical Pietism, Anabaptism, Schwarzenau Brethren.
Impact:
Contributed to the American tradition of religious communalism and pacifism, influencing later Brethren and communal societies and adding to the religious diversity of colonial Pennsylvania.
Notes:
Communalism, legalism, and ritual innovation were key. The practice of trine immersion baptism was a distinct ritual marker. Charismatic founders like Alexander Mack guided the group's formation. Transmission occurred through German immigrant networks. The group's lifestyle regulation, including plain dress and non-resistance, created strong group boundaries.
9. Freemasonry (c. 1730s–Present) — Nationwide
Description:
Fraternal order with esoteric roots, established first American lodges in the 1730s. Emphasizes morality, charity, and brotherhood, using a system of symbols, rituals, and allegorical degrees.
Influences:
European Freemasonry, Enlightenment philosophy, Hermeticism, Deism.
Impact:
Shaped American civic and religious culture, with many Founding Fathers as members. Provided a model for secret societies and influenced the symbolic language of other esoteric and fraternal movements.
Notes:
Esotericism, ritual innovation, and group identity were central. Freemasonry drew on Hermetic, Kabbalistic, and alchemical traditions, incorporating them into a system of degrees and symbolic instruction. Transmission occurred through a strict system of initiation and lineage. Sacred spaces (lodges and temples) were designed according to esoteric principles. Its cosmology drew on Hermetic and deistic principles, influencing later American esoteric movements including Mormon temple rites.
10. Ephrata Cloister (1732–1814) — Pennsylvania
Description:
Semi-monastic, celibate communal society founded by Conrad Beissel. Members prepared for spiritual union with God through ascetic discipline, communal labor, and mystical contemplation.
Influences:
German Pietism, Radical Reformation, apocalyptic Christianity.
Impact:
Pioneered communal celibacy and ritual innovation, influencing later American communal and celibate societies such as the Shakers. Renowned for music, printing, and calligraphic art.
Notes:
Conrad Beissel's charismatic leadership shaped the Cloister's theology and communal structure, with prophecy and revelation guiding the community. Communalism and celibacy were core values, with members living in monastic-style dormitories, sharing property, and organizing labor and worship collectively. Gender innovation was evident in the parallel organization of male and female houses, with women playing significant spiritual roles. Esotericism and apocalypticism influenced their beliefs, expressed in mystical writings, numerology, and symbolic art. Sacred spaces included the cloister buildings and gardens. Group identity and boundary-making were strict, with distinctive white robes, vegetarian diet, celibacy, and withdrawal from "the world." Transmission and lineage were maintained through apprenticeship, written works, and recruitment from German immigrant networks. Legalism and lifestyle regulation were rigorous. Ritual innovation included all-night vigils, antiphonal singing, and unique musical compositions. The community aspired to spiritual perfection and union with Christ, and saw themselves as a remnant awaiting the end times.
11. Moravians (Unitas Fratrum) (c. 1735–Present) — Pennsylvania, North Carolina
Description:
A German Protestant movement with roots in the pre-Reformation Bohemian Brethren. Led by Count von Zinzendorf, they established influential communal settlements in Bethlehem, PA, and Salem, NC, emphasizing missionary work, pietistic devotion, and mystical Christianity.
Influences:
Bohemian Brethren, German Pietism, Lutheranism, Count von Zinzendorf's theology.
Impact:
Contributed significantly to American evangelicalism, Protestant missions, communalism, and hymnody. Their well-organized communities were models of religious piety and industry.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership under Zinzendorf was crucial. Communalism was practiced in their early settlements, with a "General Economy" where property was shared. Ritual innovation included the "love feast" and extensive use of music in worship. Sacred spaces were meticulously planned, with communities centered around churches and choir houses. Gender innovation was present in the "Jesus is Female" movement within Moravianism, which advanced a unique gender theology and sometimes blurred traditional gender roles. Non-monogamous sexuality and alternative gender systems appeared in the marriage-lot (a practice for assigning spouses by drawing lots) and in some experimental communal arrangements, though these were often controversial and short-lived. Transmission occurred through extensive missionary networks and published hymnals. Legalism and lifestyle regulation governed daily life, and group identity was reinforced by distinctive worship and communal practices.
12. Jesus Is Female Movement (Moravian Offshoot) (c. 1740s) — Pennsylvania
Description:
A radical movement within the Moravians, led by Count Zinzendorf, that advanced a mystical theology identifying Jesus with feminine qualities and sometimes as the "Mother."
Influences:
Moravian piety, German Pietism, Zinzendorf's theology.
Impact:
Challenged gender norms within the Moravian Church and influenced later experiments in gender and sexuality in American communalism.
Notes:
Gender innovation was central, with explicit theological claims about the feminine nature of Christ and the Holy Spirit. The movement's ritual and hymnody reflected these innovations, and it influenced the structure of Moravian choir houses and communal gender relations. Charismatic leadership under Zinzendorf promoted these radical theological concepts. The movement represented a significant departure from traditional Christian gender theology, creating controversy within Moravian communities. Transmission occurred through Zinzendorf's preaching and written works, though the movement was eventually moderated by church authorities.
13. Immortalists (Shadrack Ireland's Group) (c. 1750–1780) — Massachusetts
Description:
A radical sect led by Shadrack Ireland, a former itinerant preacher who claimed he would never die. His followers believed he was a divine figure and gathered in a communal settlement in Harvard, Massachusetts, to await his resurrection.
Influences:
Second Great Awakening enthusiasm, radical perfectionism.
Impact:
Though small and obscure, the Immortalists are a key link in the genealogy of American communalism. After Ireland's death and failed resurrection, the community was absorbed by the newly arrived Shakers, providing them with their first property and some early converts.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership was absolute under Ireland, who was seen as a divine prophet. Deification ideology was central, with Ireland claiming personal immortality. The group practiced a form of communalism and established a distinct community with strong boundaries. Non-monogamous sexuality and alternative gender systems were present: Ireland taught and practiced spiritual wifery, with sexual relationships assigned or reassigned by prophetic authority, and the group experimented with communal sexual arrangements that challenged conventional marriage. This group is a prime example of transmission and lineage, as its physical and social remnants were directly passed to the Shakers.
14. Universalists (c. 1770–Present) — New England
Description:
A liberal Christian denomination that emerged from various theological strands, coalescing around the doctrine of universal salvation—the belief that God will save all humanity.
Influences:
English Universalism, German Pietism, liberal Protestantism.
Impact:
Universalism became a major force for liberal religion in America, challenging Calvinist orthodoxy. It later merged with Unitarianism to form the Unitarian Universalist Association.
Notes:
The movement was defined by its rejection of eternal damnation, a radical theological innovation at the time. Key leaders like John Murray helped organize the scattered believers. While not communal or esoteric, its challenge to mainstream theology created strong group boundaries and a distinct identity. Transmission occurred through preaching circuits and print networks.
15. Freewill Baptists (c. 1780–Present) — New England
Description:
An Arminian Baptist denomination founded by Benjamin Randall, rejecting the strict Calvinist doctrine of predestination in favor of the belief that salvation is open to all who choose to accept it.
Influences:
Arminian theology, Great Awakening revivalism.
Impact:
The Freewill Baptists represented a significant Arminian branch of the Baptist tradition and were active in social reform movements, including abolitionism and temperance.
Notes:
This movement exemplifies theological innovation that challenged the dominant Calvinism of its time. Charismatic leadership under Benjamin Randall was central to its formation and spread. The denomination created distinct group identity through its theological stance and social activism. Gender innovation included licensing women preachers, unusual for the period. Transmission occurred through revivalist preaching and the establishment of educational institutions.
16. New Israelites (c. 1790s–1802) — Vermont, New York
Description:
A radical sect founded by Nathaniel Wood in Vermont in the 1790s, the New Israelites declared themselves literal descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. They practiced divination, prophecy, strict dietary codes, and anticipated an imminent apocalypse.
Influences:
Newent Separates of Norwich, perfectionist immortalism, Hebrew restorationism, treasure-seeking culture.
Impact:
The New Israelites are a key example of early American millenarianism, blending biblical restorationism, folk magic, and alternative religious practices. Their innovations in prophecy, group identity, and ritual probably influenced later sectarian and restorationist movements in the region.
Notes:
Nathaniel Wood's charismatic and prophetic leadership was central, as he claimed direct revelation, powers of divination, and literal descent from Israel. The group's communalism was expressed through family-based gatherings, temple-building efforts, and shared ritual practice. Esotericism was prominent, with divining rods used for both treasure hunting and revelation, and the group's ritual life included prophecy, speaking in tongues, and the construction of a temple as sacred space. Their Israelite identity was explicit, and boundary-making was strong, reinforced by dietary laws and apocalyptic expectation. The failed prophecy of the "Destroying Angel" in 1802 led to the dramatic "Wood Scrape," after which the group dispersed, but their legacy probably persisted in the region's folk and religious culture. Oliver Cowdery (2nd Elder of the Mormon church) was likely influenced by New Israelite rod traditions through his father William Cowdery's participation in the group. Transmission occurred through family networks and local recruitment. Legalism and lifestyle regulation covered dietary laws, ritual observances, and community discipline.
17. African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) (1794–Present) — Philadelphia
Description:
The first independent Protestant denomination founded by Black people in the United States. It was established by Richard Allen and others in Philadelphia in response to racial discrimination within the Methodist Episcopal Church.
Influences:
Methodism, African American religious traditions, abolitionism.
Impact:
The AME Church was a foundational institution for African American religious autonomy, social organization, and political activism. It played a crucial role in the abolitionist movement and later in the Civil Rights Movement.
Notes:
The AME's formation was an act of radical boundary-making against racial injustice. Charismatic leadership from figures like Richard Allen was essential. The church maintained Methodist polity and theology but created its own sacred spaces and a distinct group identity. It represents a major innovation in American religious organization driven by social and racial factors. Transmission occurred through missionary work and migration patterns of African American communities. Gender innovation included expanded roles for women in worship and church governance, though formal ordination remained limited.
18. Longhouse Religion (Gaiwiio) (1797–Present) — New York
Description:
A syncretic religion founded by the Seneca prophet Handsome Lake, who combined traditional Iroquois beliefs with elements of Christianity. It preached a moral code aimed at revitalizing Iroquois society.
Influences:
Iroquois cosmology, Quaker teachings, revitalization movements.
Impact:
The Longhouse Religion became a major spiritual force among the Iroquois, helping to preserve cultural identity and social stability in the face of immense pressure from American expansion.
Notes:
Handsome Lake's prophetic visions are the foundation of the religion. The "Code of Handsome Lake" is a form of legalism and lifestyle regulation addressing issues like alcohol abuse and family structure. The religion represents a creative syncretic adaptation, blending indigenous and Christian elements to form a new, resilient tradition. Charismatic leadership was central to its establishment and continuation. Transmission occurred through oral tradition and ceremonial practice. The movement exemplifies how prophecy and revelation functioned as tools for cultural survival and adaptation.
19. Christian Connection (Christian Connexion) (c. 1800–Present) — New England, Midwest
Description:
A network of congregations rejecting creeds and denominational authority, emphasizing Christian unity and restoration of primitive Christianity.
Influences:
New England Separates, Barton Stone, Restorationist ideas.
Impact:
Merged with the Disciples of Christ and influenced the Restoration Movement broadly.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership emerged from itinerant preachers who rejected established church structures. Prophecy and revelation were less emphasized, but the movement stressed the guidance of the Holy Spirit in interpretation. Communalism was limited to congregational sharing and mutual aid. Gender innovation was moderate, with some women participating in leadership and preaching. Esotericism was generally rejected in favor of biblical simplicity. Sacred spaces were simple meetinghouses. Group identity and boundary-making focused on anti-creedalism and open communion. Transmission and lineage occurred through preaching circuits, periodicals, and camp meetings. Legalism and lifestyle regulation were minimal, but congregational discipline was enforced. Ritual innovation included open communion and lay preaching.
20. Dorrilites (c. 1800) — New England
Description:
A perfectionist sect led by John Dorrill, teaching sinless perfection and communal living.
Influences:
Methodist perfectionism, Shakerism.
Impact:
Briefly influential in New England, with some members joining Shaker and Perfectionist groups.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership was embodied in John Dorrill, who claimed to have achieved sinless perfection. Prophecy and revelation were claimed in the form of personal holiness experiences. Communalism was practiced in shared living and property. Gender innovation included some female leadership in worship, influenced by Shaker precedents. Deification ideology was explicit, with the belief that perfection was possible in this life. Sacred spaces were communal homes and meeting rooms. Group identity and boundary-making were maintained through strict codes of conduct and separation from "the world." Transmission occurred through oral testimony and revival meetings. Legalism and lifestyle regulation were rigorous, with codes for daily conduct. Ritual innovation included public confessions and perfectionist testimonies.
21. Separate Baptists (c. 1800–Present) — South, New England
Description:
A revivalist Baptist movement emphasizing conversion, emotional worship, and church independence, emerging from Great Awakening influences.
Influences:
Great Awakening, New Light Baptists, evangelical revivalism.
Impact:
Major force in the spread of Baptism in the South and West, contributing to American evangelical culture.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership and revivalism were key features of the movement. Prophecy appeared in the form of personal conversion experiences and testimonies. The movement practiced congregational autonomy and democratic church governance. Gender roles were generally traditional, but the emphasis on personal religious experience sometimes elevated women's spiritual authority. Sacred spaces included simple meetinghouses and outdoor revival grounds. Group identity was maintained through distinctive worship practices and emphasis on personal conversion. Transmission occurred through camp meetings, itinerant preachers, and family networks. Ritual innovation included emotional worship styles, public testimonies, and baptism by immersion.
22. Massachusetts Association of Universal Restorationists (MAUR) (1800–c. 1840) — Massachusetts
Description:
A Universalist offshoot emphasizing the restoration of all souls, including the devil, to divine favor.
Influences:
Universalism, Restorationist theology.
Impact:
Pushed Universalist doctrine further than the mainstream and influenced later debates on salvation.
Notes:
Doctrinal innovation and boundary-making were central features of this group. They extended Universalist theology to its logical extreme, teaching the eventual restoration of all beings to divine grace. Charismatic leadership emerged from radical Universalist preachers who promoted these extreme views. The group created strong boundaries with mainstream Universalism through their controversial doctrines. Transmission occurred through pamphlets, preaching, and theological debates. The group dissolved as mainstream Universalism expanded and absorbed many of their ideas while rejecting their most radical claims.
23. Scattered Perfectionist Bands (c. 1800–1860) — Northeast, Midwest
Description:
Small, loosely connected groups practicing perfectionism, often with communal or non-traditional family structures.
Influences:
Methodist perfectionism, radical revivalism.
Impact:
Seeded later Perfectionist and utopian communities, including Oneida and Putney.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership varied by community, often emerging from local revival movements. Deification ideology centered on achieving sinless perfection in this life. Some groups practiced forms of communalism or alternative family arrangements. Gender innovation varied, but perfectionist theology sometimes elevated women's spiritual roles. Sacred spaces were typically homes or simple meeting places. Group identity was maintained through shared perfectionist beliefs and practices. Transmission occurred through itinerant preachers, revival meetings, and personal networks. These groups served as experimental laboratories for later, more organized perfectionist communities.
24. Bible Communists (c. 1800–1860) — Northeast
Description:
A term used for various groups who practiced communal property based on New Testament models.
Influences:
Acts of the Apostles, Perfectionist theology.
Impact:
Precursor to Oneida and other communal experiments.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership varied by community but often emerged from perfectionist or restorationist movements. Prophecy and revelation were sometimes claimed in perfectionist circles. Communalism was foundational, with property and labor shared according to biblical models. Gender innovation and non-monogamous sexuality varied, but some groups experimented with alternative family structures. Esotericism was not central, but biblical literalism was emphasized. Deification ideology was present in perfectionist teachings about achieving sinless states. Sacred spaces were communal homes and farms. Group identity and boundary-making were reinforced by communal discipline and separation from "worldly" society. Transmission occurred through itinerant preachers, revival networks, and published materials. Legalism and lifestyle regulation were strict, with detailed rules for work, worship, and conduct. Ritual innovation included communal meals, collective worship, and sometimes alternative marriage arrangements.
25. Abyssinian Meeting House (1800) — Portland, Maine
Description:
One of the earliest Black churches in New England, a center for African American religious and social life.
Influences:
African American Methodism, abolitionism.
Impact:
Key site for abolitionist organizing and Black community leadership.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership emerged from African American ministers and community activists who established the church as a center of Black autonomy. The church served as both a sacred space and a meeting place for abolitionist activities. Gender innovation was present in the significant roles women played in church governance and community organizing. Group identity was built around racial solidarity and resistance to slavery. Sacred space was carefully maintained as a place of Black dignity and self-determination. Transmission occurred through migration networks of free Black communities and connections with other African American churches. The church represented an important innovation in American religious organization, creating space for Black leadership and community building.
26. Unitarians (c. 1800–Present) — New England
Description:
A liberal Christian denomination that formally organized in the early 19th century, rejecting the Trinity in favor of the unity of God. It emphasized reason, conscience, and ethical living.
Influences:
Enlightenment rationalism, liberal Protestantism.
Impact:
Unitarianism became the intellectual and theological center of New England's elite and was closely associated with the Transcendentalist movement. It later merged with Universalism.
Notes:
Unitarianism represents a theological innovation that challenged orthodox Christianity on fundamental grounds. Its emphasis on reason and individual conscience fostered an environment where further religious experimentation, like Transcendentalism, could flourish. Charismatic leadership emerged from Harvard-educated ministers who promoted rational religion. Deification ideology appeared in the form of human perfectibility and divine potential. Sacred spaces included elegant meetinghouses that reflected their educated, affluent membership. Group identity was built around intellectual refinement and theological liberalism. Transmission occurred through educational institutions, literary networks, and family connections among New England's elite.
27. Restoration Movement (Stone-Campbell Movement) (1809–Present) — Frontier States
Description:
A major Christian restorationist movement that sought to restore the church to the perceived original practices of the New Testament. It began with the "Christian Association of Washington" founded by Thomas Campbell and Alexander Campbell in 1809, and merged with Barton Stone's movement in 1832 to form the Stone-Campbell Movement.
Influences:
Scottish Enlightenment, anti-creedalism, Second Great Awakening, Thomas and Alexander Campbell's early Restorationist efforts, Barton Stone's revivalism.
Impact:
This movement became one of the largest and most influential indigenous American Christian traditions, giving rise to denominations like the Churches of Christ, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), and others.
Notes:
The movement's key innovation was its radical Biblicism and its rejection of all post-apostolic creeds and church structures. Charismatic leadership from Thomas and Alexander Campbell (from 1809) and later Barton Stone was essential. The genealogy of restorationist influence must reflect both the Campbells' early efforts and the later Stone-Campbell union. It created a strong group identity based on a shared approach to scripture. Transmission occurred through preaching circuits, debates, and print networks. The movement emphasized restoration of primitive Christianity rather than innovation. Gender innovation was limited, but the movement's anti-hierarchical stance enabled later offshoots to experiment with lay leadership. Legalism and lifestyle regulation centered on biblical literalism and congregational autonomy.
28. Isaac Bullard's Pilgrims (1817–1818) — Vermont to Arkansas
Description:
A radical millenarian sect led by Isaac Bullard, known as "Prophet Elijah," who claimed divine authority and practiced extreme asceticism. The group traveled from Vermont to Arkansas, attracting national attention for their filthy appearance and bizarre behaviors.
Influences:
Second Great Awakening revivalism, radical perfectionism, possibly New Israelites' rod traditions.
Impact:
Though short-lived, the Bullard Pilgrims gained national notoriety and influenced discussions about religious extremism. Some members eventually joined the Shakers.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership under Bullard was absolute, with followers believing he was the Prophet Elijah. The group practiced extreme legalism and lifestyle regulation, including prohibitions on washing, requirements for specific clothing and bizarre eating practices. Their journey from Vermont to Arkansas represented a form of sacred pilgrimage, and their interaction with the Shakers demonstrates patterns of transmission between radical religious groups. Group identity was maintained through distinctive appearance and behavior that set them apart from mainstream society. Bullard may have been influenced by New Israelite traditions of using divining rods for prophetic purposes, though this connection is not definitively established.
29. Cochranites (Jacob Cochran's Movement) (c. 1818–1830s) — Maine
Description:
A radical perfectionist sect led by Jacob Cochran, practicing "spiritual wifery," ecstatic worship, and claiming apostolic restoration. Cochran assigned sexual partners to his followers and frequently reassigned them according to his prophetic direction.
Influences:
Second Great Awakening revivalism, radical perfectionism, Shakerism.
Impact:
The Cochranites were notorious for their practice of spiritual wifery, a form of non-monogamous sexuality that probably influenced later, more well-known groups and set a precedent for alternative family systems in American religion.
Notes:
Jacob Cochran's charismatic leadership was absolute, with followers believing in his prophetic authority to assign sexual partners. Non-monogamous sexuality was central to their practice, with spiritual wifery involving the temporary assignment and reassignment of communal mates. Gender innovation was present in women's participation in ecstatic worship, though male authority remained paramount. Group identity and boundary-making were strong, often leading to persecution. The group practiced ritual innovation through "holy dancing" and frenzied worship called "reaping." Transmission occurred through itinerant preaching and conversion of existing religious communities. The Cochranites are a key node in the genealogy of American non-monogamous sexuality and perfectionist communalism.
30. Kingdom of Matthias (c. 1828–1837) — New York
Description:
A small, authoritarian apocalyptic cult led by Robert Matthews, who claimed to be the messianic figure Matthias. He established a communal household in Sing Sing, New York, exercising total control over his followers.
Influences:
Burned-Over District revivalism, perfectionism.
Impact:
Though infamous and short-lived, the Kingdom of Matthias is a notable case study of authoritarian leadership, communal control, and prophetic claims in the fervent religious atmosphere of the Second Great Awakening.
Notes:
Charismatic and authoritarian leadership was absolute. Matthias claimed to be a divine prophet and exercised deification ideology. The group practiced communalism in a single household and was marked by intense legalism and lifestyle regulation dictated by Matthias. Group boundaries were maintained through distinctive dress and behavior. It ended in scandal and collapse, demonstrating the fragility of movements based solely on personal charisma.
31. Mormons (Latter Day Saints) (1830–Present) — New York, Ohio, Missouri, Illinois, Utah
Description:
A restorationist Christian movement founded by Joseph Smith, who claimed to have received divine revelations and translated an ancient record, the Book of Mormon. The movement sought to restore the original Christian church and establish Zion in preparation for the Second Coming.
Influences:
Burned-Over District revivalism, Alexander Campbell's Restoration Movement (via Sidney Rigdon, including the pre-Stone Campbell movement from 1809), Freemasonry, American folk magic, the broader environment of spiritual wifery which may include Cochranite practices and John C. Bennett.
Impact:
Mormonism grew into a major global religion and played a significant role in the settlement of the American West. Its unique theology, social organization, and history of conflict with mainstream society make it one of the most distinctive American-born religions.
Notes:
Joseph Smith's charismatic leadership and ongoing prophecy and revelation were foundational. The group practiced communalism in its early years through the United Order, significantly influenced by Sidney Rigdon, who brought communalistic ideas from his association with Alexander Campbell's Restoration Movement (beginning 1809, before the Stone-Campbell merger). Gender innovation included the introduction of polygamy, and women participated in healing rituals and temple ordinances. Esotericism began with Smith's treasure hunting activities using seer stones and divining rods before founding the church, with the majority of his early revelations received through his brown seer stone. Later esoteric influences include Masonic temple rites that heavily influenced Mormon temple ceremonies after Smith's 1842 initiation. The theology includes a deification ideology through eternal progression to godhood. Mormons see themselves as a chosen people, a modern Israel. They established sacred spaces like Nauvoo and Salt Lake City, with temples at their center. Strong group identity and boundary-making were forged through persecution and migration. Transmission occurred through a robust missionary system. Legalism is present in strict moral codes like the Word of Wisdom. Mormon polygamy developed through multiple influences within the broader environment of spiritual wifery practices. John C. Bennett may have influenced Joseph Smith regarding spiritual wifery concepts during the Nauvoo period, though Smith later distanced himself from Bennett's more libertine practices. Early Mormon polygamy included polyandrous marriages, with Joseph Smith marrying at least 11 women who were already married to other men, often to create "sealing" connections between influential families and Smith himself.
32. Millerites (1831–1844) — Northeast, Midwest
Description:
A widespread millenarian movement led by the Baptist preacher William Miller, who calculated that the Second Coming of Christ would occur in 1843 or 1844.
Influences:
Second Great Awakening, biblical apocalypticism, revivalism.
Impact:
The movement attracted tens of thousands of followers. After the "Great Disappointment" of 1844, the movement splintered, giving rise to several Adventist denominations, most notably the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
Notes:
Miller's charismatic leadership and prophetic claims were the movement's core. It was defined by its intense focus on a specific apocalyptic timeline. Group identity was strong, with followers separating from their former churches. The movement is a major node in the genealogy of American apocalypticism. Transmission occurred through tent meetings, publications, and evangelical networks. There is evidence of mutual interaction between Miller and Joseph Smith, with both prophets responding to each other's teachings about the Second Coming.
33. Oberlin Perfectionists (c. 1835–1860s) — Ohio
Description:
A form of Christian perfectionism that emerged from Oberlin College, led by figures like Charles Finney and Asa Mahan. It taught that Christians could, through faith and effort, attain a state of "entire sanctification" or freedom from willful sin in this life.
Influences:
Second Great Awakening revivalism, Wesleyan holiness theology.
Impact:
Oberlin Perfectionism was a major force in the Holiness Movement and influenced social reform, particularly abolitionism. It provided the theological groundwork for later Pentecostal and perfectionist groups.
Notes:
This movement centered on a deification ideology in the form of spiritual perfection. It fostered a strong group identity among students and faculty at Oberlin and influenced a generation of social reformers. Its legacy was transmitted through Oberlin's graduates and publications. Gender innovation included support for women's education and participation in reform movements. The movement's combination of perfectionist theology and social activism created a distinctive form of American Christianity.
34. Transcendentalism (c. 1836–1860) — New England
Description:
An intellectual, literary, and philosophical movement centered in New England, which held that divinity pervades all nature and humanity. It emphasized intuition and individual conscience over tradition and dogma.
Influences:
Unitarianism, German Idealism, European Romanticism, Asian religions.
Impact:
Transcendentalism produced some of America's most influential writers and thinkers, including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. It deeply influenced American literature, religion, and philosophy, and was connected to social experiments like Brook Farm.
Notes:
Transcendentalism is a key example of American esotericism, blending Western and Eastern mystical ideas, and heavily influenced by Swedenborgian thought. Key figures like Emerson served as charismatic leaders. It championed a form of deification ideology, teaching the "divinity of man." While not a formal sect, it had a strong group identity and its own sacred spaces, like Walden Pond. Gender innovation appeared in support for women's rights and intellectual equality. The movement's emphasis on individual spiritual experience and connection with nature influenced later American spirituality.
35. Fourierist Phalanxes (c. 1840s) — Nationwide
Description:
A utopian socialist movement based on the writings of the French philosopher Charles Fourier. Dozens of communal "phalanxes" were established across the United States, aiming to create a harmonious society through cooperative labor and social organization.
Influences:
Charles Fourier's utopian socialism, American transcendentalism.
Impact:
Though nearly all the communities were short-lived, the Fourierist movement represented a major wave of secular utopianism in America and influenced later communal experiments.
Notes:
These communities were based on a detailed, almost legalistic social blueprint. Many, like Brook Farm in its later phase, had religious or spiritual underpinnings, blending socialism with liberal Christianity or Transcendentalism. They represent a significant branch of American communalism. Gender innovation was present in Fourier's theories about sexual freedom and women's equality. Some communities experimented with non-monogamous sexuality based on Fourier's concept of the "amorous minimum." Sacred spaces were designed according to Fourier's architectural principles for harmonious living.
36. Holiness Movement (c. 1840s–Present) — Nationwide
Description:
A movement that emerged from Methodism, emphasizing a post-conversion experience of "entire sanctification" or Christian perfection.
Influences:
Methodism, Wesleyan theology, Oberlin Perfectionism.
Impact:
The Holiness Movement gave rise to numerous denominations and was a direct precursor to the Pentecostal movement.
Notes:
The movement's core is a deification ideology in the form of spiritual perfection. It created a distinct identity within and outside of Methodism, with its own camp meetings, publications, and associations. Gender innovation included licensing women preachers and evangelists. Charismatic leadership emerged from revival preachers and camp meeting evangelists. Sacred spaces included camp meeting grounds and holiness churches. Transmission occurred through camp meetings, periodicals, and itinerant preaching networks.
37. Putney Community (1841–1847) — Vermont
Description:
A perfectionist Christian community founded by John Humphrey Noyes. It served as the direct precursor to the Oneida Community and was where Noyes first developed his radical theological and social doctrines, including complex marriage.
Influences:
Perfectionism, Second Great Awakening.
Impact:
This was the laboratory for the more famous Oneida Community, establishing the core tenets of Bible Communism.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership under Noyes was central. The community developed a deification ideology through perfectionism and experimented with non-monogamous sexuality through complex marriage. It is a key node in the lineage of alternative family systems and utopian communities. Gender innovation included expanded roles for women in community governance and sexual decision-making. The community's practices created strong boundaries with surrounding society and led to persecution that forced their relocation to New York.
38. Brook Farm (1841–1847) — Massachusetts
Description:
A famous utopian community founded by Unitarian minister George Ripley and other Transcendentalists. It sought to combine intellectual life with manual labor. It later converted to a Fourierist phalanx.
Influences:
Transcendentalism, utopian socialism, Fourierism.
Impact:
Brook Farm is one of America's most famous utopian experiments due to its association with major literary figures like Nathaniel Hawthorne. It exemplifies the intersection of intellectual, religious, and social reform movements.
Notes:
This community blended Transcendentalist spirituality with communal living. Its transition to a Fourierist model shows the transmission of utopian ideas. The community served as a sacred space for its members, a place to live out their ideals. Gender innovation was present in the community's emphasis on intellectual equality and shared domestic responsibilities. The community's combination of intellectual pursuits and manual labor represented a significant social experiment in American communalism.
39. Community of True Inspiration (Ebenezer & Amana Societies) (1842–Present) — New York; Iowa
Description:
German pietist Inspirationalists led by prophetic "Werkzeuge" ("Instruments") who migrated to New York (Ebenezer) then founded the seven communal Amana Colonies in Iowa (1855).
Influences:
German Lutheran mysticism, Jung-Stilling pietism, Moravian communal precedents.
Impact:
Created America's longest-lived large-scale religious commune (shared property until 1932), excelled in craftsmanship and industry (Amana appliances), and preserved German pietism on the frontier.
Notes:
Prophecy and revelation channelled through nightly "Inspiration Hours" where Werkzeuge delivered divine "Testimonies." Communalism comprehensive—common purse, assignment of labour, and celibate dormitories for single adults. Gender roles hierarchical but allowed women prophetic voices. Sacred spaces: village prayer halls and council houses. Legalism covered work rhythms, diet, and German-only schooling. Transmission: chain-migration networks from Hesse to New York to Iowa.
40. Mountain Cove Community (1842–1849) — Virginia
Description:
A mystical "Spirit-Fruit" commune founded by John W. Bryan, mixing Swedenborgian visions with Quaker quietism and charismatic trance dictations.
Influences:
Swedenborgian cosmology, Quaker Inner-Light doctrine, Shaker celibacy ideals.
Impact:
Though short-lived, it became a template for Spirit-guided communalism and influenced later Harmonial and Spiritualist communes.
Notes:
Prophecy and revelation flowed through "Spirit writings" Bryan produced in trance. Communalism entailed pooled labour, common purse, and near-celibate households. Gender roles were formally equal, but visionary women often delivered "spirit messages." Esotericism surfaced in Swedenborg-style angelology. Boundary-making included plain garb and secluded valley location. Transmission links: ex-members joined Andrew Jackson Davis's Harmonial Brotherhood, carrying celibate-communal ideals forward.
41. Oneida Community (1848–1881) — New York
Description:
A perfectionist communal society founded by John Humphrey Noyes. It practiced "complex marriage" (regulated non-monogamy), communal property, mutual criticism, and gender innovation, aiming to create a heaven on earth through radical social and theological transformation.
Influences:
Perfectionism, Putney Community, Fourierism, Bible Communism, Second Great Awakening.
Impact:
Oneida was the most radical and successful American experiment in non-monogamous communal living, influencing later utopian, feminist, and sexual liberation movements. Its economic success and internal discipline set it apart from other communes.
Notes:
John Humphrey Noyes's charismatic and prophetic authority was absolute, with his doctrine of perfectionism and "complex marriage" forming the community's core. Non-monogamous sexuality was highly regulated, with all adults considered married to each other under communal rules. Gender innovation included expanded roles for women and a critique of patriarchal marriage. Communalism was total, with shared property, collective labor, and mutual criticism as a form of ritual innovation and social control. Legalism and lifestyle regulation were extensive, covering every aspect of sexual, social, and economic life. Group identity and boundary-making were reinforced by unique marriage, dress, and ritual practices. The Oneida Community's innovations in family and sexuality created a lasting legacy for alternative family systems in America.
42. Spiritualism (1848–Present) — Nationwide
Description:
A widespread movement centered on the belief that the spirits of the dead can and do communicate with the living. It exploded in popularity after the experiences of the Fox sisters in Hydesville, New York.
Influences:
Swedenborgianism, Mesmerism, Quakerism.
Impact:
Spiritualism became a major religious and cultural force in the mid-19th century, attracting millions of adherents. It provided a platform for female leadership and influenced later esoteric and New Age movements.
Notes:
The movement was driven by charismatic mediums who claimed prophetic abilities and contact with spirits. Esotericism was inherent, focused on secret knowledge from the spirit world accessed through séances and mediumship, heavily influenced by Swedenborgian correspondence theory and Mesmerist trance states. Gender innovation was significant, as women could achieve high status as public mediums. Ritual innovation included the séance as a primary form of worship. Group identity was fluid, but the movement had strong boundaries with mainstream Christianity. Andrew Jackson Davis, the "Poughkeepsie Seer," developed the "Harmonial Philosophy" that provided intellectual framework for the movement.
43. Christadelphians (c. 1848–Present) — Nationwide
Description:
A restorationist and millenarian Christian group founded by Dr. John Thomas. They reject the Trinity, hell, and the immortality of the soul, and await the literal return of Christ to establish a kingdom on Earth.
Influences:
Restoration Movement, Millerism.
Impact:
The Christadelphians represent another distinct offshoot of the restorationist impulse in 19th-century America.
Notes:
This group is defined by its unique combination of theological doctrines, which creates a strong group identity and boundaries. They see themselves as a chosen remnant awaiting the kingdom. Charismatic leadership under Dr. John Thomas established the group's distinctive doctrines. The group practices strict biblical literalism and maintains strong boundaries with other Christian denominations. Transmission occurs through biblical study and ecclesial networks.
44. Berlin Heights Free Love Community (1850s) — Ohio
Description:
A free love community established in Berlin Heights, Ohio, that advocated for sexual freedom and the abolition of marriage as "sexual slavery." Led by figures like Francis and Francelia Barry and James Clay.
Influences:
Fourierism, Spiritualism, social radicalism, Perfectionism.
Impact:
Berlin Heights became one of the most visible free love communities in America, attracting national attention and controversy. It influenced later movements for sexual freedom and feminism.
Notes:
The community practiced non-monogamous sexuality as a core principle, viewing traditional marriage as oppressive. Gender innovation was evident in women's expanded roles and sexual autonomy. The community's identity was built around radical sexual and social theories, creating strong boundaries with conventional society. Transmission of ideas occurred through publications and lectures by community members. Berlin Heights stands as a prominent example of the intersection of sexual reform, communalism, and radical gender ideology in antebellum America.
45. Free Love Communities (general, 1850s) — Nationwide
Description:
A variety of intentional communities rejecting monogamous marriage and advocating sexual freedom, including but not limited to Berlin Heights.
Influences:
Fourierism, Spiritualism, Perfectionism.
Impact:
Precursor to later sexual liberation and communal experiments.
Notes:
Non-monogamous sexuality and gender innovation were central features of these communities. Charismatic leadership varied by community but often emerged from reform movements. The communities developed alternative theories of marriage and sexuality based on individual freedom and women's rights. Sacred spaces were created as alternatives to conventional family structures. Group identity was built around radical sexual and social theories. Transmission occurred through reform networks, periodicals, and lectures.
46. Magnetic Society of New Orleans (1850–c. 1857) — Louisiana
Description:
A Mesmerist lodge that offered public demonstrations of animal magnetism, spirit travel, and "magnetic healing," led by physician-showman Dr Joseph Bartlett.
Influences:
Franz Mesmer's animal magnetism, popular phrenology, French Spiritisme.
Impact:
Normalised trance-healing in the Gulf South, fed directly into local Spiritualist circles, and inspired Creole publications on mesmerism and spirit rapport.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership was theatrical—Bartlett staged mass "magnetic sleeps" validating prophetic revelations from entranced clairvoyants. Esotericism blended Mesmerist fluid theory with Catholic mysticism. Ritual innovation: weekly public séances under magnetic passes. Group identity relied on professional titles ("Doctor," "Professor") and paid instruction, creating a boundary from folk conjure. Transmission: graduates opened mesmerist clinics from Mobile to Galveston, seeding Gulf-coast Spiritualism.
47. Harmonial Brotherhood (c. 1851–1860s) — New York
Description:
A Spiritualist study-circle and short-lived communal project built around trance-medium Andrew Jackson Davis's "Harmonial Philosophy," promoting health reform, vegetarianism, and spirit education.
Influences:
Swedenborgian correspondences, Mesmerism, Transcendentalist health reform.
Impact:
Systematised Spiritualist cosmology, popularised vegetarian communes, and fed doctrinal material to later New-Thought and Theosophical writers.
Notes:
Prophecy and revelation issued through Davis's voluminous trance lectures (Great Harmonia series). Communalism (briefly attempted at "Summerland Home" near Poughkeepsie) featured shared labour, hydrotherapy, and co-education. Gender innovation: female mediums were equal lecturers. Esotericism permeated spirit-geography charts and aura diagnostics. Legalism stressed temperance, dress reform, and moral purity. Boundary-making included publishing houses and lecture circuits distinct from orthodox churches.
48. Amana Colonies (Community of True Inspiration) (1855–Present) — Iowa
Description:
The seven villages established by the Community of True Inspiration after their migration from Ebenezer, New York, to Iowa.
Influences:
German Lutheran mysticism, pietist communalism.
Impact:
Became one of the most successful and long-lasting communal societies in American history.
Notes:
Continuation of the Community of True Inspiration with the same characteristics: prophetic leadership through Werkzeuge, comprehensive communalism, German cultural preservation, and strict lifestyle regulation. The Iowa location allowed for greater isolation and agricultural success than their previous New York settlement.
49. Rosicrucian Influence (1856–Present) — Nationwide
Description:
A Western esoteric tradition emphasizing secret wisdom, spiritual transformation, and alchemical symbolism, revived in America through various manifestations.
Influences:
European Rosicrucian manifestos, Hermeticism.
Impact:
Influenced American occultism, including the Fraternitas Rosae Crucis and later esoteric societies.
Notes:
Transmission through printed manifestos, secret societies, and fraternal orders. Esotericism centered on Hermetic philosophy and alchemical symbolism. The tradition provided foundational concepts for later American occult movements. Group identity was maintained through secrecy and initiation. Various American groups claimed Rosicrucian lineage, with varying degrees of authenticity.
50. Fraternitas Rosae Crucis (1856–Present) — Pennsylvania; Nationwide
Description:
First durable American Rosicrucian order, founded by Paschal Beverly Randolph, blending Hermeticism, sex-magic teachings, and Afro-American Spiritualist currents.
Influences:
European Rosicrucian manifestos, Hermetic Kabbalah, Randolph's West-Indian occult heritage.
Impact:
Linked high-grade Freemasonry with esoteric physiology, prefigured modern occult fraternities (AMORC, O.T.O.), and introduced Afro-esoteric discourse into American Rosicrucianism.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership: Randolph claimed clairvoyant journeys and spirit dictations from "Sar" masters. Esotericism dominated via talismanic magic and "Eulis" sexual-alchemy rites. Ritual innovation fused Rosicrucian grades with mesmerist techniques. Boundary-making: oath-bound secrecy and racial inclusivity (rare for 1850s lodges). Transmission: printed monographs and travelling initiations seeded circles in San Francisco and Boston.
51. National Camp-Meeting Association for the Promotion of Holiness (1860–Present) — Nationwide
Description:
An interdenominational network of camp meetings promoting "the Pentecostal baptism of perfect love," foreshadowing later Pentecostal revivals.
Influences:
Methodist perfectionism, Oberlin Holiness, Phoebe Palmer's "altar theology."
Impact:
Standardized Holiness terminology and practices, trained women preachers, and helped shape the Pentecostal movement.
Notes:
Charismatic leadership drawn from revivalists and women evangelists like Phoebe Palmer. Prophecy occasional via camp-meeting testimonies; eschatology stressed imminent outpouring of Spirit. Communalism limited to temporary tent-cities but fostered mutual-aid networks. Gender innovation: women evangelists licensed to preach. Ritual innovation: public "altar consecration" for instantaneous sanctification. Transmission: annual rotating camps across states formed a mobile lineage linking Holiness and nascent Pentecostalism.
52. Free Methodist Church (1860) — New York
Description:
A Holiness denomination founded by B.T. Roberts and others who were expelled from the Methodist Episcopal Church for their radical social and religious views.
Influences:
Holiness Movement, abolitionism.
Impact:
The Free Methodist Church institutionalized a more radical form of Wesleyan Holiness, emphasizing social justice for the poor and marginalized.
Notes:
This group's formation was an act of boundary-making, separating from a parent denomination over issues of legalism, lifestyle, and social justice. It carried forward the perfectionist ideology of the Holiness movement. Gender innovation included support for women's preaching and leadership roles. The church maintained strict standards of dress and behavior while advocating for social reform. Transmission occurred through camp meetings, educational institutions, and missionary work.
53. Advent Christian Church (1860–Present) — New England
Description:
The largest body to coalesce from the post-Millerite Albany Adventists, formally organised in 1860 and teaching conditional immortality, annihilation of the wicked, and imminent premillennial return of Christ.
Influences:
William Miller's chronology, George Storrs's conditional-immortality tract, anti-creedal Restorationism.
Impact:
Provided organisational stability for scattered Millerites, pioneered annihilationist theology later adopted by Jehovah's Witnesses, and sent early Adventist missionaries to South America and India.
Notes:
Charismatic but non-prophetic leadership (Jonathan Cummings, Jonas Wendell) kept apocalyptic fervour alive without date-setting. Communalism minimal, but mutual-aid societies were strong. Boundary-making centred on Sabbath debates and soul-sleep doctrine. Transmission relied on camp-meetings and World's Crisis periodical.
54. Holiness Pentecostals (1860–Present) — Nationwide
Description:
A movement emphasizing the experience of "baptism in the Holy Spirit," glossolalia, and divine healing, emerging from the Holiness and camp-meeting networks.
Influences:
Holiness Movement, National Camp-Meeting Association.
Impact:
Laid the groundwork for the 20th-century Pentecostal explosion.
Notes:
Transmission through camp meetings, itinerant preachers, and lay networks. Gender innovation included women preachers and evangelists in prominent roles. Charismatic leadership emerged from Holiness revival preachers. Deification ideology was present in the belief in divine healing and spiritual empowerment. Ritual innovation included speaking in tongues and divine healing practices. The movement represents the culmination of 19th-century perfectionist and Holiness traditions.
Section 2: Synthesis and
Thematic Analysis
Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic
leadership was the engine of innovation and cohesion across the American
religious landscape before 1860. Prophets and visionaries—Joseph Smith
(Mormons), Ann Lee (Shakers), John Humphrey Noyes (Oneida), William Miller
(Millerites), Nathaniel Wood (New Israelites), Shadrack Ireland (Immortalists),
Jacob Cochran (Cochranites), Handsome Lake (Longhouse Religion), John Dorrill
(Dorrilites), and others—often claimed direct revelation, new scripture, or
supernatural gifts, shaping doctrine and group boundaries. Some traditions,
like the Quakers, democratized charismatic authority, allowing any member to
speak “as moved by the Spirit”. In Black churches (AME, Abyssinian Meeting
House), charismatic founders catalyzed both spiritual and social leadership,
often in the face of racial oppression. When such leadership was routinized
(Shakers, Amana), groups achieved stability; when not, movements often
fragmented or dissolved (Bullard’s Pilgrims, Dorrilites, Kingdom of Matthias).
Prophecy and Revelation
Prophecy and
direct revelation were central to innovation and boundary-making. Joseph
Smith’s ongoing revelations shaped Mormon theology and migration. Ann Lee’s
“gift” revelations among the Shakers produced new hymns, dances, and communal
regulations. William Miller’s apocalyptic calculations mobilized thousands and,
after the “Great Disappointment,” led to new Adventist denominations. Noyes’s
“Bible Communism” at Oneida evolved through ongoing revelation. Prophecy also
functioned as a tool for social critique and adaptation: Handsome Lake’s
visions reformed Iroquois society; Amana Werkzeuge’s nightly “Inspiration
Hours” maintained communal discipline; Spiritualist mediums democratized
prophecy, allowing women and marginalized people to claim spiritual authority.
Even groups that officially rejected new revelation (Unitarians, Christian
Connection) often invoked the “leading of the Spirit” for reform.
Communalism and Shared Property
Communalism
appeared in diverse forms: Ephrata Cloister, Shakers, Oneida, Labadists,
Putney, Amana, Mountain Cove, Bible Communists, Fourierist Phalanxes, and Free
Love Communities all experimented with collective property, labor, and
alternative family structures. Indigenous societies often practiced communal
land stewardship and ritual. Communal economies reinforced spiritual
ideals—celibacy at Ephrata and Shakers, perfectionist sexuality at Oneida, or
“consecration” in early Mormon settlements. Amana’s industrial success and
strict discipline enabled longevity, while many others failed due to financial
strain or leadership crises. Black churches and the Abyssinian Meeting House
fostered strong mutual aid networks.
Gender Innovation
Gender
innovation was pervasive and diverse. Shakers institutionalized gender parity
and dual leadership. Moravians, especially in the Jesus Is Female movement,
developed a theology of Christ’s feminine aspects and organized choir houses by
gender and age. Quakers empowered women as preachers and elders, while
Spiritualism elevated women as mediums and public intellectuals. Voodoo
priestesses like Marie Laveau wielded spiritual and social power in Black and
Creole communities. Oneida’s complex marriage gave women a say in sexual and
reproductive decisions, while Free Love Communities and Berlin Heights
advocated female sexual autonomy. Native American societies recognized
two-spirit individuals as spiritually significant. The Society of the Woman in
the Wilderness defined itself through male-exclusive spirituality, while Black
churches created new spaces for women’s leadership. Some groups, like the
Immortalists and Cochranites, challenged gender and sexual norms through
communal arrangements.
Non-Monogamous Sexuality and Alternative Family Systems
Alternative
family systems and non-monogamous sexuality were central to several movements.
Oneida’s complex marriage system, Mormon polygamy, Cochranite spiritual wifery,
Immortalist communal sexual arrangements, and Free Love Communities all
challenged prevailing norms. These systems were both spiritual discipline and
social experiment—intended to eliminate jealousy, foster equality, or build
dynastic alliances. Native American societies sometimes practiced polygamy
among elites. Bible Communists and Scattered Perfectionist Bands experimented
with communal child-rearing or group marriage. These innovations attracted
legal persecution and social ostracism, but left a lasting legacy on debates
about marriage, gender, and personal freedom.
Esotericism
Esotericism
flourished in the American religious landscape, blending European traditions
(Rosicrucianism, Hermeticism, Freemasonry, Swedenborgianism) with indigenous
and African-diasporic practices (Powwow, Voodoo). Groups like the Society of
the Woman in the Wilderness, Ephrata Cloister, and Fraternitas Rosae Crucis
imported and adapted alchemy, astrology, and sex-magic. Freemasonry’s ritual
symbolism influenced Mormon temple rites. Folk magic—divining rods, seer
stones, treasure seeking—was prominent among New Israelites, Bullard’s
Pilgrims, and early Mormon leaders. Spiritualism universalized esoteric
practice, making mediumship, séances, and spirit communication accessible to
millions. Mesmerism and Harmonial Philosophy blended science, healing, and
spiritual revelation, while Powwow and Voodoo maintained distinct esoteric
lineages.
Deification Ideology
The aspiration
to become divine or attain spiritual perfection was a powerful current in
American religious innovation. Shakers sought union with the Christ-spirit and
saw Ann Lee as the female Christ. Oneida’s “Bible Communism” promised
collective perfection. Mormonism taught that humans could become gods through
obedience and ritual. Oberlin Perfectionists and the Holiness Movement insisted
that “entire sanctification” was possible in this life. Transcendentalists
asserted the “divinity of man”. Immortalists claimed literal bodily immortality.
Moravian mystics developed a theology of mystical marriage to Christ.
Universalists and Unitarians taught the improvability or eventual salvation of
all souls. Native American revitalization movements sometimes promised
transformation into a perfected, immortal state. Spiritualists and Harmonial
Brotherhood adherents imagined the soul’s progressive perfection through
spiritual development.
Israelite or Chosen-People Identity
The idea of
being a “chosen people” or a new Israel was a potent source of identity and
mission. Puritans saw themselves as a “city upon a hill”. New Israelites
claimed literal descent from the Ten Tribes. Mormons framed themselves as
modern Israel, with new scripture and temple-building. African-American
churches, especially the AME and Abyssinian Meeting House, drew on Exodus
imagery to articulate a theology of liberation. Handsome Lake’s Longhouse
Religion likened Iroquois survival to a covenant peoplehood. Shakers and
Ephrata Cloister used Israelite imagery to frame their communal experiments.
These identities legitimized separation, distinctive law codes, and territorial
aspirations.
Sacred Spaces
American
religious innovators sacralized space in diverse ways. Native American
traditions held landscapes and rivers as sacred. Shaker villages were planned
as “heaven on earth”. Ephrata Cloister and Society of the Woman in the
Wilderness created monastic enclaves. Moravian settlements featured choir
houses and cemeteries designed for spiritual equality. Mormon temples became
the epicenter of ritual life. Oneida’s Mansion House was both a home and a
sacred experiment. Amana Colonies placed prayer halls at the center of each
village. Freemason lodges and Rosicrucian temples were designed with esoteric
symbolism. Voodoo and Powwow traditions sacralized urban crossroads,
cemeteries, and homes. Black churches like the Abyssinian Meeting House became
sanctuaries for worship and organizing.
Group Identity and Boundary-Making
Boundary-making
was both protective and creative. Distinctive dress—Shaker garb, Quaker gray,
Ephrata white habits, Voodoo turbans, Oneida attire—signaled separation.
Dietary codes, such as New Israelites’ kosher-style laws, Shaker vegetarianism,
and Mormon Word of Wisdom, reinforced discipline. Pacifism set Quakers,
Dunkers, and Shakers apart. Ritual exclusivity (Freemason oaths, Mormon temple
ordinances, Voodoo ceremonies) created inner circles. Migration and
seclusion—Mormons heading west, Shakers and Amana Colonists seeking rural
isolation, Bullard’s Pilgrims marching south—manifested spiritual boundaries.
Legalism and discipline were enforced through rule-books, public confession,
mutual criticism, or expulsion. Racial and ethnic boundaries were asserted by
AME, Abyssinian Meeting House, Powwow, and Voodoo.
Transmission and Lineage
Transmission of
ideology and identity was achieved through oral tradition, apprenticeship,
missionary work, print culture, communal child-rearing, formal initiation,
ritual performance, family migration chains, annual gatherings, and adaptation.
Shaker communal child-rearing, Mormon missionary work, Moravian hymnals,
Spiritualist lectures, Amana’s schooling, Holiness camp meetings, and kinship
networks in AME and Abyssinian Meeting House all sustained group identity.
Adaptation and resilience were vital for groups like the Scattered
Perfectionist Bands, Dorrilites, and Bible Communists.
Legalism and Lifestyle Regulation
Legalism and
lifestyle regulation were central to maintaining group discipline and identity.
Ephrata’s night vigils, vegetarianism, and celibacy; Shaker communal labor and
confession; Amana’s prayer-hour whistles and German-only schooling; Oneida’s
sexual interview boards; Holiness and Free Methodist bans on tobacco and dress;
Quaker meeting discipline; Voodoo ritual taboos; and Free Love legal
experiments all functioned as both pedagogy and social control.
Ritual Innovation
Ritual
creativity flourished: Shaker ecstatic dance and “gift” songs, Oneida’s mutual
criticism and complex marriage ceremonies, Mesmerist trance lectures, Powwow
hex-signs and Bible healing, Randolph’s Rosicrucian sex-magic rites, Holiness
altar consecrations, Spiritualist séances and spirit raps, Free Love communal
ceremonies, Voodoo possession dances, Moravian love feasts, and Black sacred
music at Abyssinian Meeting House all provided experiential confirmation of
doctrine and reinforced group boundaries.
Section 3: Patterns of
Transmission and Adaptation
This section
examines documented lineages of influence between American religious and
esoteric movements to 1860, tracing how beliefs, practices, and organizational
models were transmitted and adapted across groups. Each lineage is supported by
scholarly evidence and avoids speculative connections that lack historical
documentation.
Folk Magic and Esoteric Lineages
1. Divining
Rod Transmission: Folk Magic → New Israelites → Parallel Influences on Bullard
& Cowdery → Early Mormonism
Genealogy:
Anglo-American Folk Magic & Money Digging (late 18th–early 19th c.)
↓
Divining Rod
and Treasure-Seeking Traditions
↓
New Israelites
(Nathaniel Wood, c. 1790s–1802)
↓
├──
Isaac Bullard's Pilgrims (1817–1818)
│ (rod use for prophetic purposes)
│
└──
William Cowdery → Oliver Cowdery (early 1800s)
↓
Oliver Cowdery's "Rod of
Nature" in Early Mormonism
↓
Early Mormon Rod Use (Oliver Cowdery,
Heber C. Kimball)
Analysis
& Commentary:
The use of divining rods for both treasure hunting and spiritual revelation was
widespread in early American folk magic, especially in New England and upstate
New York. The New Israelites, led by Nathaniel Wood, were a key node in this
tradition: they became known for using rods not only to seek treasure but to
receive divine messages, blending folk magic with religious revelation. This
practice influenced two separate lineages: Isaac Bullard adopted rod use for
prophetic purposes in his millenarian sect, while William Cowdery, father of
Oliver Cowdery, participated in New Israelite rod traditions. However, Bullard
did not influence Cowdery—both were independently influenced by the New
Israelites' innovations. Oliver Cowdery became known for his "gift of
working with the rod," which was explicitly recognized in early Mormon
scripture and practice, and Heber C. Kimball also used rods for revelation and
spiritual guidance. This demonstrates how folk magic traditions persisted and
adapted within new religious contexts.
2. Seer Stone Transmission: Folk Magic → Joseph Smith →
Mormon Translation and Revelation
Genealogy:
Anglo-American Folk Magic & Money Digging
↓
Seer Stone
("Peep Stone") and Scrying Traditions
↓
Joseph Smith's
Treasure Seeking (c. 1820s)
↓
Joseph Smith's
Translation of Book of Mormon via Seer Stone
↓
Ongoing Mormon
Revelations through Seer Stone Practice
Commentary:
Seer stones, or "peep stones," were common tools in early American
folk magic, used for scrying—seeking hidden knowledge or treasure by gazing
into a stone. Joseph Smith and his family participated in this culture: Smith
used seer stones for treasure seeking in the 1820s, a practice attested by
neighbors, family, and later church sources. Smith's method—placing the stone
in a hat to block out light and "see" visions—was typical of regional
scrying practices. After his treasure-seeking years, Smith continued to use his
brown seer stone as his primary means for translating the Book of Mormon and
receiving many early revelations. This represents a direct continuation of folk
magic practice into Mormon religious innovation.
3. European Esoteric Transmission: Rosicrucianism &
Hermeticism → German Pietist Groups → American Esotericism
Genealogy:
European
Rosicrucianism, Hermeticism, Alchemy
↓
Society of the
Woman in the Wilderness (Johannes Kelpius, 1694–1740)
↓
Ephrata
Cloister (Conrad Beissel, 1732–1814)
↓
Influence on
American Transcendentalism
Commentary:
German Pietist and esoteric traditions, including Rosicrucianism and
Hermeticism, were brought to America by Johannes Kelpius and his followers. The
Society of the Woman in the Wilderness practiced alchemy, astrology, and
Christian theosophy, directly transmitting European esoteric currents into the
American context. Conrad Beissel's Ephrata Cloister inherited and adapted these
traditions, developing elaborate mystical practices, symbolic art, and musical
compositions that encoded esoteric knowledge. This lineage influenced broader
American esoteric currents, including Transcendentalism's mystical philosophy.
4. Freemasonic Transmission: European Lodges → American
Freemasonry → Mormon Temple Rites
Genealogy:
European
Freemasonry
↓
American
Masonic Lodges (c. 1730s–present)
↓
Joseph Smith's
Nauvoo Lodge Initiation (1842)
↓
Mormon Temple
Endowment Ceremonies
Commentary:
Freemasonry, with its Hermetic symbols, ritual degrees, and secret initiations,
became a major esoteric institution in America. Joseph Smith's initiation into
Freemasonry in Nauvoo provided direct access to Masonic ritual patterns, which
were quickly incorporated into Mormon temple ceremonies. The adaptation
demonstrates how esoteric traditions were transmitted through institutional
membership and then transformed to fit new theological contexts.
Spiritualist and Mystical Lineages
5.
Swedenborgian-Spiritualist Transmission: European Mysticism → American
Spiritualism
Genealogy:
Emanuel
Swedenborg's Writings (mid-1700s)
↓
American
Swedenborgian Societies
↓
├──
Transcendentalist Movement (Ralph Waldo Emerson)
│
├──
Andrew Jackson Davis → Harmonial Philosophy
│ ↓
│ └──
Harmonial Brotherhood Communes
│
└──
Fox Sisters (1848) → Modern Spiritualism
↓
├──
National Spiritualist Networks
├──
Female Medium Leadership
└──
Mountain Cove Community
Commentary:
Swedenborg's elaborate cosmology of spiritual worlds and communication with
spirits provided the intellectual framework for American Spiritualism. Andrew
Jackson Davis systematized these ideas into Harmonial Philosophy, while the Fox
Sisters popularized spirit communication practices. This stream demonstrates
how European theological innovation was adapted to American democratic and
egalitarian contexts, particularly in elevating women's spiritual authority
through mediumship.
6. Mesmerist
Transmission: European Animal Magnetism → American Magnetic Societies →
Spiritualism
Genealogy:
Franz Mesmer's
Animal Magnetism
↓
American
Magnetic Societies (1840s–1850s)
↓
Magnetic
Society of New Orleans (Dr. Joseph Bartlett)
↓
Integration
with Spiritualist Practice
Commentary:
Mesmerism was popularized through public demonstrations and magnetic societies,
feeding directly into Spiritualist practices of trance and mediumship. The
Magnetic Society of New Orleans exemplifies how Mesmerist techniques were
adapted for American audiences and eventually integrated into broader
Spiritualist networks.
Communal and Celibacy Lineages
7. Communal
Celibacy Transmission: German Pietism → American Communalism
Genealogy:
Society of the
Woman in the Wilderness (1694–1740)
↓
Ephrata
Cloister (1732–1814)
↓
Immortalists
(Shadrack Ireland, 1750–1780)
↓
Shakers
(1774–present)
Commentary:
The Society of the Woman in the Wilderness established the first sustained
model of communal celibacy in America through all-male monastic living. Conrad
Beissel adapted this into a larger, more systematic organization with parallel
male and female houses at Ephrata. The Immortalists served as a direct bridge
to the Shakers, who acquired Ireland's property and absorbed several members
after his death. The Shakers then transformed celibacy from ascetic preparation
into a theology of gender equality and ecstatic worship.
8. German
Pietist Communalism: European Inspiration → American Colonies
Genealogy:
German Lutheran Mysticism & Pietism
↓
Community of
True Inspiration (Ebenezer, 1842)
↓
Amana Colonies
(Iowa, 1855)
Commentary:
The Community of True Inspiration represents a direct transmission of German
pietist communalism to America, maintaining their "Inspiration
Hours," German-language education, and communal economy. Their migration
from Ebenezer, New York, to the Amana Colonies in Iowa demonstrates how
European communal traditions adapted to American frontier conditions while
preserving core religious practices.
Restorationist and Millenarian Lineages
9.
Restorationist Transmission: Campbell Movement → Mormon Communalism
Genealogy:
Christian
Association of Washington (Thomas & Alexander Campbell, 1809)
↓
Disciples of
Christ (pre-Stone movement)
↓
Stone-Campbell
Movement (merger, 1832)
↓
Sidney Rigdon
↓
Mormon
Communalism (Law of Consecration, United Order)
Commentary:
Thomas and Alexander Campbell launched their restorationist movement in 1809,
advocating restoration of New Testament Christianity and communal economic
principles. Sidney Rigdon, a key leader in the Campbell movement, converted to
Mormonism and brought restorationist theology and communal economic ideas,
which directly shaped early Mormon communal experiments. This represents a
clear, documented chain of transmission.
10.
Millenarian Transmission: Burned-Over District → Adventist Fragmentation
Genealogy:
Burned-Over
District Prophetic Culture (Second Great Awakening)
↓
├──
William Miller's Millerite Movement (1831–1844)
│ ↓
│ ├──
Great Disappointment (October 22, 1844)
│ │ ↓
│ │ ├──
Advent Christian Church (1860)
│ │ ├──
Seventh-day Adventist Church (1863)
│ │ └──
Various Smaller Adventist Bodies
│ │
│ └──
Interaction with Joseph Smith (mutual influence on Second Coming prophecies)
│
└──
Joseph Smith's Mormon Revelations (1830–1844)
Commentary:
The Burned-Over District served as a crucible for millenarian innovation.
William Miller's movement and Joseph Smith's revelations emerged from the same
regional context, and there is direct evidence of mutual interaction: Joseph
Smith issued revelations in response to Miller's predictions, demonstrating how
prophetic movements influenced each other. After the Great Disappointment,
Millerite fragmentation led to multiple Adventist denominations, showing
adaptation rather than abandonment of millenarian expectation.
Non-Monogamous Sexuality and Alternative Family Systems
11.
Spiritual Wifery Transmission: Perfectionism → Communal Sexual Innovation
Genealogy:
Perfectionist Theology (1740s–1800s)
↓
Jacob Cochran's
Cochranites (1818–1830s)
├──
Spiritual Wifery with Prophetic Assignment
└──
Influence on John Humphrey Noyes's Study of Alternative Sexuality
↓
├──
Putney Community (1841–1847)
└──
Oneida Community Complex Marriage (1848–1881)
Commentary:
Noyes explicitly studied Cochranite practices and incorporated modified
versions of spiritual wifery into his perfectionist theology. The evolution
from Cochran's prophetically assigned partnerships to Noyes's systematized
"complex marriage" demonstrates adaptation of transmitted concepts to
different theological frameworks.
12. Mormon
Polygamy Development: Multiple Influences → Nauvoo Practice
Genealogy:
Broader
Spiritual Wifery Environment (1820s–1840s)
├──
Cochranite Practices
├──
John C. Bennett's Influence
└──
Immortalists' Spiritual Wifery
↓
Mormon Polygamy (Nauvoo period)
├──
Polyandrous "Sealing" Marriages
└──
Dynastic Family Connections
Commentary:
Mormon polygamy emerged within a broader environment of spiritual wifery
practices. John C. Bennett may have influenced Joseph Smith during the Nauvoo
period, and Mormon missionaries documented contact with Cochranite communities.
Early Mormon polygamy included polyandrous marriages and "sealing" of
families to Joseph Smith, demonstrating how alternative sexuality concepts were
adapted to Mormon theological frameworks.
13. Free
Love Movement: Fourierist Theory → American Communities
Genealogy:
Charles
Fourier's Utopian Socialism
├──
"Amorous Minimum" and Abolition of Marriage
└──
Fourierist Phalanxes in America (1840s)
↓
├──
Brook Farm (Fourierist phase)
└──
Influence on Free Love Theory
↓
├── Perfectionism and Spiritualism
└── Berlin Heights Free Love Community
(1850s)
↓
General Free Love Communities
Movement
Commentary:
Fourier's theories about sexual freedom and the abolition of marriage
influenced American utopian experiments. His "amorous minimum"
promoted multiple sexual encounters and challenged traditional marriage
structures. These ideas, combined with Perfectionist theology and Spiritualist
concepts of individual liberty, led to Free Love Communities like Berlin
Heights, which advocated female sexual autonomy and non-monogamous
relationships as principles of social reform.
African-Diasporic and Folk Traditions
14. Voodoo
Transmission: African Traditions → Louisiana Syncretism
Genealogy:
West African
Vodun & Central African Spiritual Practices
↓
Louisiana
Voodoo (18th c.–present)
├──
Marie Laveau's Priestess Leadership
├──
Catholic-African Syncretism
└──
Urban Ritual Networks
Commentary:
Louisiana Voodoo represents a complex syncretism of West African spiritual
practices, Catholicism, and French-Spanish occult traditions. The tradition
maintained African-derived priestess leadership while adapting to urban
American contexts through coded Catholic imagery and public ceremonies.
15.
Pennsylvania German Folk Magic: European Traditions → American Adaptation
Genealogy:
German Lutheran
Folk Christianity & Grimoire Traditions
↓
Pennsylvania
Dutch Immigration
↓
Powwow
(Braucherei) Tradition (18th c.–present)
├──
Hex-Sign Barn Decorations
├──
Biblical Healing Formulas
└──
Rural Magical Networks
Commentary:
The Powwow tradition preserved German folk magical practices in American rural
contexts, blending Christian prayers with esoteric symbols and Native American
herbal knowledge. This tradition maintained ethnic boundaries while adapting to
American religious pluralism.
Conclusion
These
documented lineages demonstrate that transmission of religious innovations in
antebellum America occurred through personal networks, geographical proximity,
published materials, and institutional connections. The patterns show
adaptation and synthesis rather than simple copying, as each group modified
transmitted elements to fit their own theological and social contexts.
Understanding these genealogies illuminates both the diversity and
interconnectedness of American religious innovation before 1860, revealing how
seemingly distinct movements participated in broader currents of spiritual
experimentation and social reform.
Section 4: Glossary of Terms
This glossary
provides concise definitions and contextual explanations for key terms,
concepts, and practices used throughout Sections 1–3. Terms are selected based
on their relevance to the religious, esoteric, and communal movements
discussed, and all definitions are grounded in the context of antebellum
American history.
Abyssinian
Meeting House
Historic Black church in Portland, Maine, central to African American religious
autonomy and abolitionist organizing in New England.
Afro-American
Spiritualist Currents
Esoteric and ritual traditions of African descent, often blended with
Christian, Spiritist, or occult elements. Prominent in Louisiana Voodoo and
Paschal Beverly Randolph’s Rosicrucianism.
Alchemy
A spiritual and proto-scientific tradition aiming to transform matter and
achieve spiritual perfection, practiced by groups such as the Society of the
Woman in the Wilderness and Ephrata Cloister.
Animal
Magnetism
A theory and practice of healing and trance induction, developed by Franz
Mesmer, involving an invisible natural force believed to have physical and
spiritual effects. Influential in Mesmerist societies and early Spiritualism.
Braucherei
(Powwow)
A Pennsylvania Dutch system of folk healing and magic, combining Christian
prayers, Germanic charms, and Native herbal knowledge. Practiced by powwowers.
Charismatic
Leadership
Authority based on personal magnetism, spiritual gifts, or claims of direct
revelation, as opposed to institutional office. Central to prophets and
founders of new sects.
Chosen
People Identity
The belief that a group is specially selected by God for a unique mission or
covenant, as seen in Mormons, New Israelites, and African American churches
using Exodus imagery.
Communalism
A social and economic system in which property and resources are owned
collectively and labor is shared, practiced in Ephrata Cloister, Shakers,
Oneida, Amana, and various utopian communities.
Complex
Marriage
A system of regulated, non-monogamous relationships in which all adult members
are considered married to each other, developed by the Oneida Community.
Conjure/Gris-gris
Protective, healing, or cursing charms and rituals in Louisiana Voodoo,
blending West African, Native, and Catholic elements.
Deification
Ideology
Theological belief that humans can become divine or attain spiritual
perfection, taught in various forms by Mormons, Shakers, Oneida, Perfectionist,
and Holiness movements.
Divining Rod
A forked stick or rod used in folk magic for dowsing—seeking water, minerals,
treasure, or (in some groups) revelation. Used by New Israelites, Isaac
Bullard, Oliver Cowdery, and early Mormon leaders.
Ecstatic
Worship
Rituals involving trance, dance, or spirit possession, designed to induce
altered states and direct spiritual experience. Practiced by Shakers,
Spiritualists, Voodoo adherents, and others.
Esotericism
Belief in secret or hidden spiritual knowledge accessible through initiation,
ritual, or mystical experience. Manifested in Freemasonry, Rosicrucianism,
Ephrata Cloister, Mormon temple rites, and Spiritualism.
Fourierism
A utopian socialist system developed by Charles Fourier, emphasizing communal
living (phalanxes), sexual freedom, and social harmony. Influenced Brook Farm
and Free Love Communities.
Fox Sisters
Margaret and Kate Fox, whose 1848 “spirit rappings” in Hydesville, NY, are
credited with launching the American Spiritualist movement.
Free Love
Communities
Intentional communities and reform movements (e.g., Berlin Heights) that
advocated for sexual freedom, the abolition of marriage, and gender equality,
often influenced by Fourierism, Perfectionism, and Spiritualism.
Freemasonry
A fraternal order with esoteric roots, emphasizing ritual, symbolism, and moral
teachings. Influenced American civic and religious culture and contributed
ritual elements to Mormon temple practice.
Fraternitas
Rosae Crucis
An American Rosicrucian order founded by Paschal Beverly Randolph, blending
Hermeticism, sex-magic, and Afro-American Spiritualist currents.
Gender
Innovation
Any significant departure from prevailing gender roles, including dual
leadership (Shakers), female priesthood (Voodoo), two-spirit recognition
(Native American traditions), and experimental gender theologies (Moravians).
Gift Songs
Spontaneous spiritual songs believed to be received from the Holy Spirit,
central to Shaker worship and some Perfectionist revivals.
Harmonial
Philosophy
A Spiritualist cosmology developed by Andrew Jackson Davis, positing that
health and spiritual progress result from harmonizing with universal laws and
spirit guidance.
Inner Light
A Quaker doctrine holding that the divine spirit is present in every person and
can provide direct guidance, superseding external authority.
Israelite
Identity
The claim to literal or spiritual descent from the biblical Israelites, used by
groups such as the New Israelites and Mormons to justify ritual law and
migration.
Jesus Is
Female Movement
A Moravian offshoot (c. 1740s) that advanced a mystical theology identifying
Jesus with feminine qualities and sometimes as the “Mother,” influencing gender
roles and ritual in Moravian communities.
Law of
Consecration
A Mormon principle, influenced by Sidney Rigdon and Alexander Campbell,
requiring members to dedicate all property to the church for redistribution and
communal support.
Magnetic
Societies
Organizations devoted to the study and practice of animal magnetism
(Mesmerism), often blending healing, trance, and esoteric ritual.
Marriage-lot
A Moravian practice of assigning spouses by drawing lots, reflecting both
communal order and a belief in divine guidance.
Medium
A person believed to serve as an intermediary between the living and the
spirits of the dead, central to Spiritualism and some Voodoo practices.
Mesmerism
A healing and trance-inducing practice based on “animal magnetism,” developed
by Franz Mesmer and popularized in America through public demonstrations and
societies; influenced Spiritualism and New Thought.
Millenarianism
Belief in a coming thousand-year reign of Christ or a golden age, often
involving apocalyptic expectation; central to Millerites, Mormons, Shakers, and
many revivalist sects.
Mutual
Criticism
A communal practice at Oneida in which individuals were publicly critiqued by
their peers to promote self-improvement and social harmony.
National
Camp-Meeting Association for the Promotion of Holiness
An interdenominational network of camp meetings (from 1860) promoting “the
Pentecostal baptism of perfect love,” foreshadowing later Pentecostal revivals.
Non-monogamous
Sexuality
Any system of sexual relationships that departs from exclusive, lifelong
monogamy, including polygamy, polyandry, complex marriage, and spiritual
wifery. Practiced by Oneida, Mormons (in polygamy), Cochranites, Immortalists,
and Free Love communities.
Perfectionism
The belief that individuals or communities can attain a state of sinless
perfection in this life, taught by Oberlin Perfectionists, Oneida, and Holiness
movements.
Phalanx
A communal living arrangement based on Charles Fourier’s blueprint for an ideal
society, featuring shared labor and resources; adopted by Brook Farm and other
American utopian communities.
Powwow
See Braucherei.
Prophecy
The act of declaring divine messages or foretelling future events, often
foundational to new religious movements; central to Mormons, Millerites,
Shakers, New Israelites, and many others.
Restoration
Movement
A Christian movement (Stone-Campbell Movement) seeking to restore the church to
New Testament practices, beginning with the Campbells in 1809 and merging with
Barton Stone’s movement in 1832.
Ritual
Innovation
The creation of new religious ceremonies, practices, or forms of worship, such
as Shaker dance, Oneida mutual criticism, Spiritualist séances, and Voodoo
possession rites.
Rosicrucian
Influence
A Western esoteric tradition emphasizing secret wisdom, spiritual
transformation, and alchemical symbolism, brought to America by German Pietists
and revived by Paschal Beverly Randolph.
Sacred Space
A location set apart for religious or spiritual activity, ranging from Native
American sacred landscapes to purpose-built temples (Mormons), meetinghouses
(Shakers, Quakers), lodges (Freemasons), and cemeteries (Voodoo).
Scattered
Perfectionist Bands
Small, loosely connected groups practicing perfectionism, often with communal
or non-traditional family structures, seeding later Perfectionist and utopian
communities.
Seer Stone
A small stone used as a tool for divination or revelation, especially in folk
magic and early Mormonism (by Joseph Smith and others) for scrying,
translation, and receiving spiritual messages.
Séance
A ritual meeting for communicating with spirits, central to Spiritualism. Often
involved mediums, spirit rapping, and trance.
Sex-magic
Esoteric practices using sexual energy for spiritual or magical purposes, most
notably taught by Paschal Beverly Randolph’s Fraternitas Rosae Crucis.
Shaker
A member of the United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing, known
for celibacy, communalism, gender equality, ecstatic worship, and distinctive
furniture and architecture.
Spiritualism
A movement centered on the belief that the spirits of the dead can communicate
with the living, usually through mediums and séances; began in 1848 with the
Fox Sisters and became a national phenomenon.
Spiritual
Wifery
A non-monogamous marital system, often justified by prophecy, in which sexual
partners are assigned or reassigned by spiritual authority; practiced by
Cochranites, Immortalists, and associated with early Mormon polygamy.
Swedenborgianism
A theological system based on the visions and writings of Emanuel Swedenborg,
emphasizing spiritual correspondences and multiple levels of heaven; influenced
Transcendentalism and Spiritualism.
Two-Spirit
A modern term for Indigenous North American people who embody both masculine
and feminine qualities, recognized in some traditions as having special
spiritual roles.
Voodoo
A syncretic religion in Louisiana blending West African Vodun, Catholicism, and
French-Spanish occult lore. Known for spirit possession, conjure, gris-gris,
and priestess leadership (e.g., Marie Laveau).
